Theragata and Therigata: A Manuel for the Forest Tradition

The Theragata and Therigata are collections of ancient Buddhist poems, contained in the Kudkha Nikaya, which present a picture of forest monks and nuns in the original first centuries of Buddhism.

Reginald Ray, Buddhist Saints of India says;Forest tradition means to undertake a particular wandering, ascetic lifestyle, based on restraint in food, shelter, clothing, and medicine, in order to engage in meditation.

WANDERING. Having left the world and become a renunciant in the Buddha’s tradition the elders wander abroad, the women as well as the men (Ti 17, 20, 92). With no fixed abode, they “go to different countries, wandering unrestrained” (Ta 37). Referring to the geographical and temporal expanse of her peregrinations, a bhikkhuni tells us, “Anga, and Magadha, Vajji, Kasi, and Kossala have been wandered over by me. For 55 years without debt I have enjoyed the alms of the kingdoms” (Ti 110).

DWELLING IN THE FOREST. The wandering renunciant takes up residence in the forest, that is, in remote and uninhabited regions, for “forests [aranna] are delightful, where ordinary people find no delight. Only those rid of desire will delight there” (Ta 992). The specific places where the forest renunciants dwell include mountains (giri) (Ta 115), mountain cliffs (nagamuddha) (Ta 544), caves (lena) (Ta 309, 545, 1135), woods (vana) (Ta 545) hillsides (sanu) (Ta23), the bases of trees (rukkhamula) (Ta 217, 467, 998,), and so on. 

Sometimes the renunciant takes up residence in the cremation grounds (Ta 6, 315, 393, 599, 854). Occasionally, he or she lives in a small hut (kuti), and the frequent association of such huts with rain and storm suggests that it was during the rainy season that these were typically used (for example, Ta 1, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 325-29, 487). An indication of the variety of places in which a renunciant might life and meditate during his or her career is given in several of the songs, such as Samkicca’s, in which he remarks, “I have dwelt in woods, caves, and grottoes, in solitary lodgings, in a place frequented by beasts of prey” (Ta 600-601).

ROBE AND APPEARANCE: The garments of the monk/nun are typically made from rags, which have been collected “from rubbish heaps, cremation grounds, and streets” (Ta 578) and stitched together (Ti 1, 16). Anuruddha, for example, “sifted, took, washed, dyed, and wore the rags from a rubbish heap: (Ta 896). Generally, the renunciants of the Theragatha and Therigatha are tonsured, and both laity and matted-hair ascetics are depicted as having head and beard shaved (Ta 377, 512). The bhikkhunis similarly have shaved heads as marks of their way of renunciation (Ti 32, 75).

SEEKING ALMS. When the monk/nun seeks alms, they come from their forest haunts to where the laity live (Ta1054), receiving “left-over scraps…as food” (Ta 1057). Their food is “cooked a little here, a little there, in this family of that” (Ta248). The renunciant should wander from door to door, neither seeking out the wealthy nor avoiding the poor (Ta 579) and should not seek to fill the stomach: “While eating moist or dry food, he should not be satisfied. A bhikkhu should wander with unfilled belly, eating in moderation, mindful” (Ta 982). 

This austere begging practice is most conducive to meditation, for, we are told, “the mind of one who is greedy for flavors does not delight in meditation (Jhana)” (Ta 579 – 80). The renunciant is also to accept food, as it comes, without judgment. For example, Mahakassapa reports that he came down from his lodging and entered the city to seek alms, coming before a leper who was eating. “He offered a portion to me with his rotting hand; as he was throwing the piece (into my bowl) his finger broke off there. But near the foot of a wall I ate that portion; no disgust arose in me, either while it was being eaten or when it had been eaten” (Ta 1054-56).

THE IMPORTANCE OF SOLITUDE. One of the most frequently  repeated themes in the Theragatha and Therigatha is that of the necessity, the virtue, and the joy of a life lived away from others, in seclusion. One is to avoid all companions, “not living…with householders nor houseless ones alike” (Ta 581; see also 54, 577-80, 896), find no satisfaction (asamsattha) in company (Ta 860), and enjoy the “sweetness of solitude” (Ta 85). Dwelling “alone in the forest like a tree rejected in a wood” (Ta 62), the monk/nun is not to grieved, for “if no one else is found in front or behind, it is very pleasant for one dwelling alone in the wood…alone, companionless, in the pleasant great wood” (Ta 537, 541). The solitary retreat of monks/nuns makes them inaccessible to others, the virtue of which is often stressed (for example, Ta 109). It is not only that renunciants are to live in retreat alone; in addition, they wander alone (Ta 1122).

Their solitude exists in order to facilitate meditation, for bhikkus and bhikkhunis withdraw into solitude for the purpose of meditation and therefore “should resort to a lodging which is secluded” (Ta 577). Significantly, like the other elements of the forest life, such solitude supports meditation not only physically and socially but psychotically and spiritually. The Theragatha and Therigatha present the belief that, by retiring to solitary retreat, the forest renunciant may purify defilements in a depth and manner not possible “In company.”

It should be observed that women ascetics face the particular threat of harassment and even attaqckd by men, a theme highlighted in the Therigatha. One nun in her forest abode remarks on her fear of this danger but says that such fear is a wile of Mara to which she will not succumb. For her, as for the  other renunciants both women and men, courage and tenacious resolve prevail: even if 100,000 rogues were to menace her, she will not move a hair’s breadth (Ti 230-31). Although complete solitude is the general rule, forest monks/nuns sometimes live together with one or a few like-minded others (Ta 177-78), or in small communities (Ta 148), or when a disciple lives with or near his or her teacher (Ta 66). Such situations are exceptions, however, and in the two texts the general rule applies that where people gather in numbers, be they laity of renunciants, the virtue of the true renunciant life is compromised (Ta 245, 898).

SPEAKING LITTLE. The renunciant is peaceful and taciturn, speaking little. Sariputta, we are told twice, is “calm [upasanta], quiet [uparata],  speaking in moderation [mantabhanin]” (Ta 1006, 1007). Gangatiriya tells us, “In two rainy seasons I uttered only one word” (Ta 127). Elsewhere in the texts reference is made to the noble (ariya) silence (tunhibhava) of the renunciants, indicating an implicit characteristic if not an explicit vow (Ta 650, 999). The theme of silence is connected with not only renunciants on the path, so to speak, but also with enlightened saints. Thus we read in Revata’s song, “Having attained to non-reasoning (avitakka) the disciple of the fully enlightened one is straightway possessed of noble silence” (Ta 650).

FOREST LIFE. These elements of the lifestyle of the forest renunciant are often described in concert, as in Upasena Vangantaputta’s gatha, in which he refers to a habitation that is secluded; a coarse robe fashioned form cloth taken form rubbish-heap, cremation ground, and streets; wandering “for lams form family to family without exception; and not living in company with householders not houseless ones alike” (Ta 577-81). Sometimes the collection of conventions followed by the renunciant represents one of the classical lists of ascetic requisites, such as the “four requisites” (Ta 1057) or other lists of dhutaguna-type practiced (Ta842ff.). Another, less standardized description is found in the song of Gangatiriya, who says, “My hut was made of three palm leaves on the  bank of the Ganges. My bowl was only a funeral pot, my robe a rag from a dust-heap”.

RIGORS OF FOREST LIFE. The life of forest monks/nuns is difficult and demanding, something expressed in a verse repeated several times: “Tormented by gnats and mosquitoes in the forest, in the great wood, like an elephant in te4h van of the battle, one should endure there mindful” (Ta 31,684). Another song mentions other hardships: “Brought low by colic, dwelling n the grove, in the woods, where there is restricted food supply, where it is harsh” (Ta 250, compare 435). The forest life is not only onerous, it can pose danger to life and limb, and several songs make reference to the continual threat of wild beasts (for examples, Ta 524, 577, 1135). Other verses make reference to the difficulty of finding sufficient food and to the loneliness of forest life, the inclement weather one faces in the forest, the threat of attacks by others, and so on, as well as the social disapprobation that seems to go along with and to parallel whatever praise may come one’s way (Ta 1119). These difficulties are summarized in the following frank appraisal: “Truly it is hard to go forth...sustenance of life is difficult for us with whatever comes our way” (Ta 111). While presenting a realistic picture of the rigors of forest life, the saints are able, at the same time, to affirm its unique value in comparison to the alternatives. As Godatta observes imply, “There is happiness arising from sensual pleasures and pain springing from seclusion: but the pain springing from seclusion is better than happiness arising from sensual pleasures” (Ta 669).

MEDITATION. The inside practice e of meditation is the substance of the spiritual quest. Meditation stands at the center of the Theragatha and Therigatha; one abandons the world, follows the arduous conventions of forest life, and dwells in solitude and silence all for the purpose of mediation. And one meditates because it is the sole road to enlightenment (Ta 112). It is uniquely through mediation that one trains one’s mind (Ta 134), develops good qualities (Ta 352-53), gains the highest happiness (Ta 884), and achieves liberation (Ta 112). Thus, in one’s solitary retreat, “one should meditate undistracted” (Ta 37) “continually putting forth energy” (Ta 266). The sounds of the forest are welcome because they “awaken the sleeper to mediation” (Ta 22). One should sit down, cross one’s legs, and hold one’s body erect Ta 29). Then one carries out the practice of meditation to transform the minds unruliness (Ta 355ff.) and gradually bring it into a state of calm (Ta 689). Mindfulness (sati) is the standard practice of the two texts. Sometimes other standard practices are mentioned, such as the practice of concentration (jhana) (Ta 12), “recollecting the Enlightened One” (Ta 354, 382), and practicing the four unlimited (appamanna) (Ta 386). There are also references to the classical cremation ground contemplations (Ta 567ff., 18).

Meditation is depicted as an arduous practice requiring commitment and exertion, because the mind is wild and chaotic. Dominated by conflicting and defiling emotions, it is a horse that needs to be tamed and a wild elephant that needs to be put in a pen (Ta 355-59). Given this situation, one must exert oneself in order to attain success. 

Part of the rigor of mediation is the lifelong commitment it entails, seen in Anuruddha’s reference to fifty-five years of mediation practice (Ta 904). The rigor of  mediation is also a day-to-day commitment, as implies by one of the classical dhutaguna practices wherein the renunciant does not lie down at any time but remains upright, meditating night and day (nesajjika). 

In addition to expressing the rigors of the solitary meditative path, the songs also speak of the joy and contentment that it brings. Bhuta remarks, “’when in the sky the thunder-cloud rumbles, full of torrents of rain all around on the path of the birds, and the bhikkhu who has gone into the cave meditates, he does not find greater contentment than this” (Ta 522). 

Meditation is not something abandoned at the time of realization but plays a role for the enlightened ones in two ways. . First, although enlightened, one continues to meditate, like Bhaddiya, who, “having plucked out craving root and all, meditates, happy indeed” (Ta 466). Second, meditation, it would seem, becomes internalized and defines the state of being of the saint.

The Theragata also notes that the Forest Tradition was already being abandoned and sidelined by Buddhist monks and nuns who were attracted to a more comfortable, conventional monastic way of life.